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W)\{1 


Plate  I 


DESIGN 

AND 

REPRESENTATION 


NEW  YORK  STATE 
EDUCATION  DEPARTMENT 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING 

INTRODUCTION 

This  handbook  has  been  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  assisting 
teachers  of  drawing  in  the  work  of  instruction  as  outHned  in  the 
syllabus  for  secondary  schools. 

In  preparing  the  syllabus  the  subject  of  free-hand  drawing,  in- 
cluding representation  and  design,  has  been  treated  independ- 
ently from  mechanical  drawing.  It  is  impossible  to  state  in  the 
treatment  of  these  subjects  just  what  requirements  or  limita- 
tions shall  be  set  for  each  kind  of  examination  named  in  the 
syllabus.  The  work  is  too  elastic  in  its  nature  to  permit  of  such 
close  limitations.  All  the  principles  applying  to  a  most  difficult 
problem  will  frequently  be  present  in  a  simple  sketch.  The 
preparation,  therefore,  of  questions  for  any  examination  or  the 
practice  of  the  subject  must  be  based  on  reason  and  common 
sense,  considering  the  nature  and  difficulty  of  the  phase  of  the 
subject  in  hand. 

Drawing  is  primarily  a  means  of  expression.  Satisfactory  re- 
sults can  not  be  expected  if  the  practice  in  drawing  is  confined 
to  the  drawing  class.  Like  writing,  it  should  be  applied  gen- 
erally in  school  work,  and  abundant  opportunity  may  be  found 
in  almost  every  subject.  Scenes  described  in  the  reading  lessons 
may  be  illustrated,  cuts  found  in  the  textbooks  may  be  repro- 
duced, specimens  and  apparatus  studied  in  the  science  classes 
may  be  drawn,  the  figures  referred  to  in  mathematics  may  be 
constructed,  etc.  The  principles  of  arrangement,  composition 
and  design  shoiikl  be  applied  to  all  work,  and  attention  given  to 
arrangement  and  to  placing  of  sketches  and  written  matter  in 
notebooks.  Practice  in  drawing  out  of  school  hours  should  be 
encouraged.  A  home  sketchbook  will  afford  recreation,  while  at 
the  same  time  it  will  lead  the  pupil  to  observe  closely  and  record 
graphically  what  he  sees.     While  the  quality  of  line  and  finish 


209774 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING 


of  the  picture  depends  on  skill  in  execution,  it  must  not  be 
assumed  that  drawing  is  wholly  a  matter  of  hand  training. 

Conception,  thought,  knowledge  and  a  real  desire  to  draw, 
whether  it  be  in  line,  light  and  shade,  or  color  are  of  greatest 
importance.  The  ability  to  express  by  drawings  depends  in  a 
large  measure  on  the  development  of  the  imagination,  the  power 
of  carrying  in  the  mind  a  correct  and  vivid  picture  of  the  thing 
to  be  represented.  The  study  of  the  object  is  essential,  but  the 
student  should  also  learn  to  draw  without  having  it  before  him. 

In  the  making  of  this  syllabus  one  object  has  been  ever  borne 
in  mind  which  should  likewise  be  the  aim  of  every  teacher.  This 
is  thoroughness  in  a  few  essential  things.  The  failure  specifi- 
cally to  mention  or  prescribe  subjects  more  or  less  popular  such 
as  pose  drawing,  figure  illustration,  artistic  anatomy,  landscape 
composition  or  the  history  of  painting,  sculpture,  architecture  or 
ornament  must  not  be  taken  as  indicative  of  a  lack  of  proper 
appreciation  of  these  things.  There  is  nothing  to  prevent  the 
study  of  these  subjects  to  any  extent  provided  there  has  been 
sufiicient  insistence  in  the  small  amount  of  time  devoted  to 
drawing  upon  the  absolute  fundamentals  of  design  and  repre- 
sentation with  the  resultant  ability  to  draw  or  design  well  a  few 
simple  but  important  things. 

In  the  teaching  of  art  history  there  is  no  method  more  prac- 
tical and  profitable  than  that  of  immediate  and  regular  illustra- 
tion of  the  daily  problems  in  representation  and  design  with 
photographs,  plates,  casts  and  other  facsimiles  of  the  best  cor- 
responding objects  in  the  history  of  art.  Pictures  and  objects 
of  the  best  art  periods  presented  in  connection  with  the  current 
problems  of  the  classroom  acquire  a  meaning  quite  different 
from  that  which  is  possible  when  they  are  given  merely  in  a  con- 
secutive course,  valuable  as  this  latter  method  may  be,  if  the 
teacher  finds  time  for  it. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  this  handbook  is  primarily  an  aid 
to  the  understanding  of  the  syllabus,  a  view  of  the  field  to  be 
covered,  and  can  not  be  considered  in  any  sense  a  textbook.  State- 
ments which  follow  and  which  may  seem  to  contradict  this  idea  must 
be  regarded  as  general  guides  to  a  clearer  classification  and  carry- 


INTRODUCTION 


ing  out  of  the  work,  and  should  not  be  accepted  as  substitutes  for 
thorough  courses  of  instruction  which  teachers  are  presumed  to  have 
had  from  art  schools  or  acknowledged  textbooks  on  the  subjects. 

General  Divisions  of  the  Subject 

The  subject  of  free-hand  drawing  divides  itself  into  two  distinct 
parts.     These  are  design  and  representation. 

Design  treats  of  the  originating  of  forms  of  objects  and  of  their 
decoration  according  to  the  laws  of  use  and  beauty. 

Representation  deals  with  the  apparent  characteristics  of  objects. 
It  includes  the  study  of  proportion  and  the  principles  cf  perspective 
and  composition. 

While  the  principles  governing  in  one  of  these  divisions  finds  ap- 
plication in  many  problems  of  the  other,  the  two  branches  are 
thoroughly  distinct  and  are  therefore  so  treated  in  their  respective 
chapters  which  follow. 


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DESIGN 

1  The  subject  of  design  divides  itself  into  two  broad  classes, 
which  may  be  called  respectively,  design  in  three  dimensions,  and 
design  in  two  dimensions.  The  first  is  design  in  the  round  or  the 
originating  of  real  objects  having  length,  breadth  and  thickness, 
the  second  the  planning  of  such  objects  as  involve  length  and 
breadth  only  and  of  various  methods  of  surface  enrichment. 

2  The  purpose  of  all  design  in  its  broadest  sense  is  twofold :  it 
must  produce  an  article  of  use  and  make  it  as  beautiful  as  possible. 
These  vital  functions  of  use  and  beauty  are  each  of  them  in  turn 
subject  to  three  definite  principles. 


Use 

3  The  three  vital  principles  affecting  the  use  of  an  object  are 
as  follows: 

a  The  form  taken  by  any  object  should  be  such  that  the  use  and 
purpose  of  the  object  is  not  concealed  or  disguised,  but  rather 
revealed  and  enhanced. 

h  The  material  of  which  an  article  is  made  should  be  that  most 
suitable  for  the  purpose  and  the  characteristics  and  peculiarities  of 
the  material  should  frankly  appear.  Under  no  conditions  should 
it  masquerade  as  another  material. 

c  The  method  of  construction  should  be  frank,  clear  and  work- 
manlike, speaking  unmistakably  of  the  tool  and  process  as  well  as 
of  the  form  and  material, 

4  These  three  principles  are  closely  related  and  mutually  de- 
pendent. All  influence  the  form  of  the  object,  and  all  exercise  a 
strong  effect  on  the  decoration  of  that  form. 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING 


Beauty 

5  Under  the  head  of  beauty  must  be  considered:  (a)  Propor- 
tion, oj  the  relation  of  sizes;  (h)  contour,  or  the  relation  of  shapes; 
(c)  tone,  or  the  relation  of  neutral  values  and  of  colors. 

a  Proportion  embodies  and  signifies  more  than  is  usually  con- 
sidered under  that  head.  Proportion  does  not  mean  size  as  is  often 
supposed,  but  relationship  of  sizes.  Beautiful  or  ugly  proportions 
alone  make  or  mar  the  beauty  of  an  article  which  may  bear  no 
ornament  whatsoever.  Esthetic  analysis  of  a  multitude  of  natural 
or  artificial  objects  will  prove  that  the  element  of  proportion  is  one 
of  the  most  vital  sources  of  whatever  beauty  they  may  possess.  Con- 
sidering the  unlimited  range  of  forms  in  nature  and  the  arts,  it 
would  seem  almost  impossible  to  reduce  the  idea  of  proportion  to 
a  very  brief  statement,  yet  an  analysis  of  large  numbers  of  widely 
varied  types  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  a  ratio  approximating 
that  of  two  parts  to  three  occurs  most  frequently  in  forms  whose 
beauty  is  unquestioned.  The  golden  oblong  [fig.  2]  is  a  form 
showing  a  more  delicate  ratio  of  sizes  which,  however,  reduced 
to  simpler  terms  closely  approximates  our  two-to-three  proportion. 

Other  relations  may  be  met  with  in  many  well  designed  objects, 
as,  for  example,  the  proportions  of  the  square  and  the  ratio  of 
two  parts  to  one  and  of  five  to  eight. 

h  Contour  is  the  defining  visible  edge  or  outline  of  an  object. 
Such  edges  may  be  composed  of  straight  or  curved  lines  or  their 
combinations.  How  to  dispose  the  surfaces  of  a  form  so  as  to 
arrive  at  pleasing  contours  is  one  of  the  problems  of  the  designer. 
The  horizontal  straight  fine  suggests  quiet,  repose,  inaction ;  the 
vertical  line  indicates  vigor,  support,  life;  while  the  oblique  line 
gives  the  idea  of  motion.  The  curves  at  one's  command  include 
the  circle,  ellipse,  oval,  spirals  and  the  parts  or  combinations  of 
these. 

The  study  of  contour  will  be  assisted  by  analysis  of  these  types 
of  lines,  alone  and  in  combination,  and  an  observance  of  their  use 
by  masters  of  design  in  the  most  beautiful  objects  of  industrial 
art.  Knowledge  of  the  types  of  lines  mentioned  above  without 
ability  to  use  them  is  as  useless  as  oral  repetition  of  perspective 
principles. 


DESIGN 


A 


FIGURE   2 


THE   GOLDEN    OBLONG 


The  golden  or  ideal  oblong  is  built  upon  proportions  to  which  mathe- 
maticians give  the  term  of  mean  and  extreme  ratio.  In  the  above 
line  A  C  the  ratio  of  A  B  to  B  C  is  as  the  ratio  of  B  C  to  A  C.  If  the 
line  were  divided  into  loo  parts  such  a  division  would  very  nearly  ap- 
proximate the  proportion  of  38  to  62.  The  ratios  of  5  to  8  and  2  to  3  are 
both  close  to  this  extreme  and  mean  ratio  and  give  the  designer  great 
help  in  deciding  the  large  proportions  or  subdivisions  of  any  problem. 


c  Beauty  is  also  revealed  through  tone.  In  the  sense  here  meant 
tone  refers  to  the  effect  of  an  object  as  to  light  and  dark,  and  color. 
Our  understanding  of  this  subject  and  the  method  of  teaching  it 
have  become  much  clearer  in  the  last  decade.  Whether  or  not  the 
method  of  presentation  shall  be  by  charts  and  scales  of  spectrum 
tones  and  values,  copied  by  the  pupils,  or  color  analysis  of  natural 
objects  or  whatever  other  procedure,  it  should  be  possible  to  awaken 
in  the  high  school  pupil  an  appreciation  ,of  the  difference  between 
good  and  bad  color  relations.  With  a  knowledge  of  the  reasons 
for  such  differences  should  come  an  ability  to  devise  and  apply 
acceptable  tone  combinations. 

6  The  basic  considerations  which  have  just  been  reviewed  under 
the  two  heads  of  use  and  beauty  have  universal  application.      The 


10  FREE-HAND  DRAWING 

teacher  has  to  determine  what  the  objects  are  to  which  the  pupil's 
powers  of  invention  shall  be  directed. 


Designing  of  Objects 

7  In  too  many  schools  it  has  been  the  custom  to  consider  design 
as  limited  to  surface  enrichment.  The  greater  and  more  important 
field  of  real  objects  is  hardly  thought  of,  much  less  entered  upon 
and  worked.  Hardly  a  home  exists  that  does  not  suffer  under  its 
load  of  thoughtless  and  superfluous  decorations.  The  consoling 
beauty  of  harmonious  plain  surfaces,  good  though  simple  propor- 
tions, useful  yet  graceful  objects  of  service  is  yet  to  be  realized 
by  many  a  family  complacent  in  its  exj>ensive  taste  and  proud  of  its 
miscellaneous  ornaments. 

8  If  improvement  is  to  come  in  these  lines  it  must,  to  a  great 
extent,  arrive  through  intelligent  and  consistent  instruction  in  the 
principles  of  design  and  good  tast«  in  real  objects  of  common  use. 
It  is  first  of  all  a  problem  in  three  dimensions. 

9  If  this  wide  field  is  worthy  of  attention  at  all,  it  must  be  classi- 
fied intelligently.  Five  broad  divisions  suggest  themselves, 
viz,  vessels,  utensils,  apparel,  furniture,  architecture.  One  prob- 
lem in  each  of  these  is  the  minimum  accomplishment  that  a  teacher 
should  get  from  each  pupil  at  the  end  of  a  four  year  high  school 
course.  The  order  in  which  these  subjects  may  be  taken  up,  how- 
ever, is  not  vital. 

ID  The  teachers  of  industrial  design  should  be  themselves  in- 
formed as  to  the  construction  of  the  objects  which  the  pupils  are 
to  design.  The  properties  of  materials,  methods  of  manufacture, 
and  historic  evolution  of  the  article  should  be  known  and  shown 
to  the  class.  Right  here  should  come  the  close  connection  of  his- 
toric ornament  with  the  practical  work.  Examples  of  the  best 
work  of  the  past  in  each  specific  line  ought  to  be  available  in  the 
form  of  photographs,  colored  plates  or  drawings  while  that  work  is 
being  studied  as  a  design  problem. 

II  Nothing  could  be  better  for  successful  teaching  of  construc- 
tive design  than  an  actual  working  experience  for  the  teacher. 
The  best  substitute  would  be  demonstrations  by  a  skilled  workman 


D[5ION-FOR-BOWL-AND-COV[R-lN-nAMMER[0-METAL 
WITH-PER5PECTlVE-rR0M-W0RKlNG-DRAWINQ' 


Plate  II 


1 


f 


PERSPECTIVE  RENDERING  OF  AWORKING  DRAWING 

•    A   TURNED  CANDLE5TICK 


Plate  III 


DESIGN  J I 

of  the  process  under  consideration  coupled  with  study  of  good 
treatises  of  the  subject. 

12  By  whatever  process  the  knowledge  is  either  gained  by  the 
teacher  or  given  to  the  class,  no  instruction  in  design  can  be  con- 
sidered complete  -without  attention  being  given  to  the  important 
principles  and  processes  involved  in  the  crafts  of  typography  and 
printing,  bookbinding,  leather  work,  pottery,  metal  and  woodwork. 
Real  knowledge  of  design  is  best  gained  in  actual  practice  of  the 
craft  for  which  the  design  is  intended.  In  the  school  in  which 
such  crafts  can  be  actually  practised  will  flourish  the  truest  sort 
of  design.  The  interdependence  and  mutual  relationship  of  some 
of  these  crafts,  as,  for  example,  printing,  bookbinding,  and  leather 
work,  should  be  given  fullest  consideration. 

13. With  a  knowledge  of  the  characteristics  and  limitations  of 
the  crafts  just  mentioned  we  may  intelligently  take  up  in  succes- 
sion the  several  divisions  mentioned  as  covering  this  general  sub- 
ject of  constructive  design.  The  following  lists  offer  a  wide  range 
of  choice  for  lesson  material  in  the  designing  of  objects. 

Vessels 

14  Under  this  head  we  have  the  broad  classes  of  holders,  dip- 
pers, pourers  and  drinking  vessels,  each  demanding  shapes  and 
treatment  adapted  to  its  purpose  and  materials. 

Utensils 

15  In  this  division  are  the  widely  varied  classes  for  lighting, 
eating  and  working.  The  lighting  utensils  include  all  forms  of 
candelabra,  candlestick,  lamps  and  shades,  lanterns,  and  fixtures 
for  gas  and  electricity.  Eating  utensils  include  all  forms  of  the 
knife,  fork  and  spoon  and  articles  for  the  serving  of  food ;  while 
utensils  clussed  as  working  offer  articles  used  in  sewing,  writing, 
reading,  heating  and  other  varied  lines. 

Apparel 

16  Apparel  covers  the  field  of  clothing  and  its  many  details  with 


J 2  FREE-HAND  DRAWING 

the   varied    forms   of   jewelry   including   decorated   pins,   buttons 
buckles,  clasps,  chains  and  fobs. 

Furniture 

17  This  important  class  broadly  divides  itself  into  tables,  seats 
cabinets,  frames  and  textile  draperies,  with  their  variations  anc 
combinations. 

Architecture 

18  This  subject  is  so  involved  and  technical  that  much  less  car 
be  done  with  it  in  a  high  school  course  than  with  the  other  sub 
jects  enumerated.  It  is  so  important,  however,  to  both  the  com- 
munity and  the  individual  that  it  must  be  given  serious  attention 
Much  of  the  work  of  architecture  and  all  of  the  technical  draw- 
ing involved  is  treated  in  the  mechanical  drawing  syllabus.  It  falls 
however,  to  the  lot  of  the  free-hand  drawing  teacher  to  presen 
the  esthetic  side  of  the  subject. 

19  The  growth  of  higher  ideals  of  municipal  beauty  today  make! 
an  early  introduction  to  the  principles  underlying  true  and  beauti- 
ful building  of  great  value  to  young  people.  The  high  school  ap 
proach  should  be  the  understanding  of  what  good  architectur( 
means  in  the  simplest  as  well  as  the  more  pretentious  building 
The  adaptation  of  the  essentials  of  a  structure  to  the  local  condi 
tions  imposed,  the  solving  of  problems  of  proportions  and  dispo 
sition  of  principal  masses  and  details,  the  consideration  of  har 
monious  colors,  all  these  suggest  practical  lessons  leading  to  J 
permanent  taste  for  good  architecture.  Interiors  of  buildings  witl 
all  their  possibilities  of  shaping,  spacing,  enriching  and  coloring 
on  walls,  ceilings,  floors,  doors,  windows,  mantels,  stairs  and  cthei 
parts  offer  an  exhaustless  field. 

20  Such  problems  should  not  be  presented  as  unreal  condition: 
but  made  to  live  by  making  them  applicable  to  the  local  and  hom< 
conditions  of  the  pupil  who  works  upon  them. 

21  Analysis  of  the  esthetics  of  the  most  beautiful  buildings  a: 
wholes  or  in  their  details  should  enter  into  this  study  of  architectun 
from  the  free-hand  drawing  side.  The  study  of  the  historic  style; 
must  here  become  a  more  living  subject  than  ever  before,  and  th< 


FREEHAND  PEQ3PECTIVE  mOM  WOI^KING  DI^WING5 
•    OF  JOINERY   PROBLE.M^    • 


Plate  IV 


Plate  VIII 


DESIGN  13 

most  commonplace  dwelling  house  or  business  building  in  a  small 
town  will  serve  to  a  live  teacher  as  a  basis  for  many  vital. lessons, 
and  as  a  starting  point  for  fascinating  trips  backward  into  the  story 
of  the  evolution  of  our  ordinary  dwelling  houses. 


Surface  Enrichment  or  Design  in  Two  Dimensions 

22  All  decorative  design  employs  one  or  the  other  of  two  factors. 
It  must  use  either  abstract  shapes  or  forms  coiTventionalized  from 
nature. 

2;^  Abstract  design  depends  upon  the  arrangement  6f  lines  and 
areas  without  resemblance  to  natural  forms.  Conventional  design 
•uses  nature  fonns  adapted  by  revision  and  the  elimination  of  de- 
tails to  the  needs  of  the  specific  object  in  hand.  Both  types  of 
design  are  found  in  all  styles  and  in  every  age  of  art  history. 

24  Abstract  design  has  its  origin,  to  a  large  extent,  in  the  ex- 
haustless  field  of  geometry.  Quantities  of  historic  motives  in  every 
period  come  from  this  source  and  innumerable  patterns  in  the  class- 
room can  be  obtained  by  working  over  rectangular  and  triangular 
networks  or  within  other  geometric  limits  [pi.  VIII].  Abstract 
units  may  be  arrived  at  by  arbitrary  combinations  of  lines  of  varied 
shapes,  or  by  cutting  up  larger  forms  into  smaller  interesting  areas. 

25  Natural  forms  or  their  parts  frequently  suggest  abstract  dec- 
orative shapes.  Examples  of  this  are  the  curls  of  smoke  or  the 
swirls  of  water,  the  markings  of  wood  and  marble,  the  wrinkling 
of  bark  and  withered  leaves,  or  the  surface  details  of  innumerable 
natural  objects.  Such  forms  may  be  adapted  and  used  quite  apart 
from  the  spirit  of  conventionalized  ornament. 

Conventionalisation 

26  In  confronting  the  subject  of  conventionalization  we  are  met 
by  a  more  difficult  problem,  yet  one  of  the  most  important  in  deal- 
ing with  successful  decorative  design. 

27  Conventionalization  is  by  no  means  a  fixed  or  definite  term. 
It  applies  alike  to  each  of  many  degrees  of  decorative  modification 
of  nature.     We  may  have  merely  approximate  conventionalization 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING 


where  there  is  but  slight  departure  from  the  pictorial,  or  the  treat- 
ment may  be  most  formal  and  rigid  in  which  only  the  last  essentials 
of  growth  and  shape  are  arranged  with  severest  symmetry.  Be- 
tween these  extremes  may  be  found  all  degrees  of  freedom  or 
formality.  Foreshortened  forms  and  hybrid  combinations  are  fre- 
quent in  many  styles. 

2^  All  of  these  difficult  phases  of  ornament  are  quite  beyond  any 
but  the  most  expert  designers  and  not  to  be  considered  in  high 
school  work.  There  is  no  reason,  however,  why  the  simpler  kinds 
of  informal  and  formal  conventionalization  should  not  be  under- 
stood and  used  by  the  pupils. 

Informal  conventionalization  refers  to  the  use  of  the  perspective 
appearance  of  a  natural  form  for  decorative  purposes.  The  orna- 
mental value  of  such  an  appearance  is  dependent  upon  the  rejection 
of  small  details,  refinement  of  forms,  clear  edges  and  flattened 
values  and  color  [fig.  3,  pi.  IX]. 


FIGURE  3 
A  conventional  flower  spray,  informally  treated 

Modern  German 


=▼  irj 


~  a  ^  r<9 1 


Surface   pattern   of  leaf  units 
informally  conventionalized 


Border  of  flower  units 
informally  conventionalized 


Plate  IX 


Plate  X 


ADAPTATION 

OF5IMPLt  LEAF  AND  FLOWER  FORMS 
TO  VARIOUS    5PACE5 


Plate  XI 


+© 


^ .  I  < 


TYPES   OF   LEAVE5 

CONVENTIONALIZED 


Platl:  XII 


TVPt5  OF  LEAVE5 

•  CONVENTIONALIZED  • 


Plate  XIII 


DESIGN  75 

29  In  the  formal  style  the  natural  principles  of  form  and  growth 
are  taken  as  a  guide  and  purely  decorative  shapes  and  arrange- 
ments developed  upon  such  principles  [pi.  X-XIII,  XVI]. 

30  Exercises  should  he  given  in  each  of  these  modes.  The  in- 
formal method,  heing  hut  slightly  removed  from  the  pictorial,  is 
I)erhaps  the  easier  of  the  two  and  needs  less  guidance  except  in 
choice  of  suhject.  In  the  more  formal  style  the  student  should  be 
taught  to  conventionalize  a  few  basic  types  of  flowers  in  top  and 
side  views,  adapting  such  drawings  to  several  different  space  limits. 
Different  forms  of  common  leaves  should  be  similarly  studied 
[pi.  XI].  Such  exercise  will  give  an  appreciation  of  conventional- 
ized ornament  and  develop  some  ability  to  produce  it.  Throughout 
all  design  employing  nature  motives  one  is  constantly  confronted 
with  conventionalized  forms.  An  appreciation  of  the  beauty  of 
these  forms  in  the  best  art  is  a  source  of  keen  delight.  The  de- 
velopment of  such  appreciative  power  is  distinctly  worth  while  and 
may  best  be  accomplished  by  individual  attempts  at  conventional 
ornament. 

31  Both  abstract  and  conventional  design  are  governed  by  defi- 
nite rules  of  order  which  are  inviolate.  The  most  comprehensive 
of  these  are  harmony,  balance,  rhythm,  dominance  and  subordina- 
tion. Such  terms  are  too  broad  and  general  for  students'  use  with- 
out repeated  concrete  interpretations  by  the  teacher.  These  rules 
or  principles  of  design  should  be  studied  at  length  by  the  teacher 
and  their  practical  application  to  each  immediate  problem  impressed 
upon  the  pupils.  An  earnest  searching  of  the  material  in  the  list  of 
books  recommended  in  the  Drawing  Syllabus  will  be  necessary  for  the 
teacher  not  equipped  by  art  school  training  in  this  subject.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  give  adequate  instruction  in  the  brief  space  of  the  handbook. 

32  The  vital  factor  of  order  and  system,  dependent  upon  mathe- 
matics, is  so  important  that  it  would  be  well  if  every  designer,  young 
or  old,  could  be  made  to  respect  it.  The  finest  creations  in  the 
history  of  decoration  have  obeyed  the  laws  of  geometry  however 
shrouded  such  laws  may  have  been.  Only  in  art's  decline  do  we 
find  the  designer  throwing  away  in  his  conceit  the  very  factor  that 
would  be  his  work's  salvation. 


i6  FREE-HAND  DRAWING 

33  In  the  enumeration  of  kinds  of  decoration  which  follow,  fre- 
quent reference  must  be  made  to  these  two  types :  the  abstract  and 
the  conventional. 

34  The  first  question  confronting  one  in  a  specific  problem  of 
surface  enrichment  is  whether  it  is  desirable  to  decorate  the  par- 
ticular surface  at  hand  at  all.  Infrequently  it  is  much  better  to  leave 
it  untouched,  save  for  preserving  the  natural  beauty  of  its  own 
texture  and  tone.  If  such  texture  and  tone  are  not  pleasing  a 
finish  in  a  plain  color  may  prove  to  be  by  far  the  happiest  result 
one  can  get. 

35  Supposing,  however,  that  surface  enrichment  is  desirable,  we 
must  decide  whether  our  design  is  to  repeat  over  an  unlimited  area 
or  to  be  used  for  surfaces  with  distinct  size  limitations.  Design 
for  unlimited  surfaces  is  that  which  repeats  regularly  in  all  direc- 
tions and  is  commonly  known  as  surface  pattern.  In  design  for 
limited  areas  we  have  the  border  and  the  space  inclosed  by  it. 

36  In  designing  for  either  of  these  classes  we  are  dependent  upon 
the  principle  of  recurrence  or  repetition.  This  leads  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  motive  or  unit  of  repeat.  The  unit  of  repeat  in 
design  may  be  either  a  single  decorative  figure  or  a  group  of  them, 
or  a  definitely  arranged  growth  on  natural  principles  [pi.  XIV]. 

37  In  most  high  school  work  it  is  probable  that  the  decorative 
repeating  unit  will  be  quite  difficult  enough  without  attempting 
group  forms  or  natural  growth  for  surface  enrichment. 

38  In  designing  single  decorative  figures,  either  for  independent 
use  or  for  repetition,  their  mass  shapes  must  first  be  planned.  These 
may  then  be  divided  up  into  details.  These  mass  shapes  may  be 
straight  line  geometric  forms  or  curvilinear  or  a  combination.  In 
the  curvilinear  forms  we  again  must  refer  to  the  circle,  the  ellipse, 
and  the  tgg  form,  which  latter  is  by  far  the  most  productive  of 
beautiful  results.  The  Qgg  form  or  ovoid  by  lengthening  or  broad- 
ening becomes  a  type  figure  from  which  may  develop  a  myriad 
of  beautiful  nature  types,  more  or  less  conventionalized.  The  pro- 
portion and  contour  of  the  whole  mass,  together  with  the  har- 
monious relationship,  adherence  to  nature's  principles,  and  a  happy 
play  of  the  details  composing  it,  are  the  deciding  factors  in  the 
figure's  claim  to  beauty  [pi.  XV,  XVI]. 


i 


"^ 


Cfj)        €5,^         ^,^    OF  A  5IAiGLE 


REPEAT    C0r^P05ED 

OF  A 

UNIT 


1 


^—         ^^^^ 


REPEAT  COr^POSED 
OP  A  GROUP  OF  • 
UNITS      • 


^  i  ^ 


^     /'^  .-ft-r^^-?*  J  >2j^''    OF  A   CONTIMUOUS 


^  \c3r,^-^^P  ^    GROWTH 


^  'J€,  ^ 


-Hi 


Plate  XIV 


1 


•  UN1T6    FClOtVl  OLD  TEXTILES  • 

SHOWING  THE  IN\PORTANCE  OF  SIMPLE   AND  GRACEFUL   MASS  FORMS 
.  WHICH   AR£  CUT  INTO  5MALLtR  t^55E5  AND  PECORATIVE  DETAILS    * 


Plate  XV 


Plate  XVI 


^^P'i 


Plate  XVII 


Plate  XVIII 


1 

4 


Plate  XIX 


DESIGN  If 

Design  for  Unlimited  Areas 
"All-over"  repeats  or  surface  pattern 

39  The  designing  of  a  pattern  for  surface  repetition  is  a  subject 
having  many  branches  and  beset  with  many  difficulties.  As  in  many 
other  subjects  in  a  secondary  school  only  its  rudiments  may  be 
touched  upon.  Pattern  designing  demands  the  originating  of  a 
unit  of  rq)eat  and  the  use  of  a  system  of  repetition. 

40  The  unit  of  rei)eat  in  pattern  design  for  high  schools  should 
be  a  single  decorative  figure.  Only  in  occasional  instances  owing 
to  unusual  talent  or  conditions  can  more  involved  units  of  repeat 
be  produced. 

41  The  systems  of  repeat  at  our  disposal  are  simple,  consisting 
of  arrangement  of  the  units  in  vertical,  horizontal  and  oblique  rows. 
The  size,  shape  and  general  character  of  the  unit  must  determine 
such  systems  of  repeat  through  experiment,  the  comparative  amount 
of  background  to  ornament  and  the  rhythmic  effect  of  adjacent 
units  being  the  governing  factors. 

42  Some  of  the  most  charming  surface  effects  come  frequently 
from  the  simplest  units,  while  elaborate  units,  most  carefully  ex- 
ecuted, fail  often  of  their  purpose.  Very  much  of  the  success  and 
beauty  of  surface  pattern,  therefore,  depends  upon  the  rhythm  over 
the  surface  rather  than  upon  an  individual  form.  This  achievement 
of  beauty  through  simple  forms  in  orderly  arrangement  is  the  chief 
lesson  to  be  gained  from  such  exercises. 

43  A  word  of  caution,  however,  may  not  be  amiss.  There  is  a 
fascination  in  watching  the  development  of  a  surface  design  by  the 
simple  repetition  of  a  unit  which  causes  in  many  schools  far  too 
much  time  to  be  spent  upon  it.  Tliere  is,  perhaps,  no  class  of  de- 
sign which  yields  such  happy  immediate  results  from  meager  and 
almost  hopeless  material  as  the  all-over  pattern.  The  mere  regu- 
larity of  the  repeat  adds  a  feeling  of  unity,  harmony  and  con- 
structive strength  which  overcomes  the  weakness  of  many  a 
unit.  The  feeble  teacher  is  therefore  tempted  to  produce  a  quan- 
tity of  such  designs  whose  results  are  showy  but  of  little  practical 
value. 


i8 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING 


Design  for  Limited  Areas 
The  border.     Abstract  forms 

44  The  simplest  border  is  a  boundary  or  margin  line  or.  as  in 
the  case  of  this  printed  page,  a  surrounding  marginal  space.  Fre- 
quently such  a  plain  line  or  space  is  the  best  thing  one  could  have. 
It  is  of  great  importance  to  know  when  to  stop.  A  further  elabora- 
tion of  the  border  would  mean  an  inclosing  band  of  several  paral- 
lel lines.  Upon  the  varying  widths  and  spacing  of  these  lines  would 
depend  the  amount  of  beauty  in  the  final  effect.  Additional  changes 
in  these  simple  elements  would  lead  to  a  treatment  of  the  corners 
of  the  frame  where  the  lines  could  be  interrupted  or  interlaced  or 
stepped  in  or  out.  The  center  of  each  side  also  could  be  varied  in 
a  like  manner.  Finally  the  lines  would  be  continuously  interrupted 
or  stepped  or  interlaced  [pi.  XX-XXII]. 

45  Instead  of  continuous  straight  lines  a  border  may  be  com- 
posed of  abstract  block  forms  following  each  other  in  repetition 
or  alternation,  tire  abstract  forms  to  be  similar  and  harmonious  in 


(iiKicmiwici 


^X?  "^37  ^X?  \ 


UMITS    6UC0tSTIN0  ^IfiVltM.  FORAVS  •  DERlveo     FROM    S>c^SJ^^^'&S 

FIGURE  4 


Irnl 

r 


'    50RDE(5   M0T1VE5    - 
OF  SIMPLE  PARALLEL  BAND5  WITH 
•  P05315LE  ACCENTED  CORNERS  • 


Plate  XX 


&./, 


r 


■P  il'  il'  il'  il'  I 


1 


1 


illlli    lii    illlli    illlli    ill 


lll-lllll.-llllll..llll..lllll 


ABSTRACT  LINE  BORDERS 


Plate  XXI 


Plate  XXII 


■  ■■■■■■■■■■■ 

L-Js:«jLC3i:» 

■3>X-X-X-X-X'X 

EJulElulEIEISIinEI 


PLi^TE   XXIII 


I 


Plate  XXIV 


DESIGN  19 

shape  with  careful  arrangement  of  the  corner  forms  and  those  in 
the  centers  of  the  sides.  The  use  of  squared  paper  as  an  underlay 
is  very  helpful  in  planning  such  work.  Borders  of  a  circular  shape 
are  aided  by  a  network  of  radial  lines  and  concentric  circles  which 
correspond  to  the  verticals  and  horizontals  of  the  rectangular  frame 
above  mentioned  [fig.  4,  pi  XXllI]. 

46  In  devising  borders  which  employ  curved  lines  we  are  obliged 
to  ask  what  the  possibilities  and  limitations  of  curved  lines  are. 
The  simplest  curves  may  be  described  as  the  '*  C  "  and  the  *'  S  " 
forms  or  the  simple  and  C()nii)L)und.  Jn  botli  of  these  forms  it  is 
necessary  to  remember  that  the  arc  of  the  circle  is  under  most 
conditions  the  least  pleasing  of  curves  and  that  a  curve  whose  con- 
trolling law  is  the  least  obvious  is  usually  the  most  fascinating, 
provided  it  has  a  controlling  law.  Thus  an  ovoid  is  more  pleasing 
than  an  ellipse,  and  an  ellipse  fascinates  more  than  a  circle.  This, 
however,  must  not  be  taken  as  a  condemnation  of  the  use  of  the 
circle  when  such  a  form  is  the  one  best  adapted  for  our  purpose. 
The  preponderance  of  the  tgg  or  ovoid  form  in  nature  together  with 
that  of  the  parabola,  or  curve  of  force,  indicates  how  much  beauty 
is  dependent  upon  them. 

47  In  using  curved  lines  for  borders  the  vital  points,  it  must  be 
remembered,  are  the  corners  of  the  frame  and  the  centers  of  the 
sides.  Either  or  both  of  these  sets  of  points  must  be  considered 
and  treated  successfully.  Abstract  curves  may  start  from  the 
corners  and  meet  in  the  centers  of  the  four  sides  or  starting  at  the 
latter  points  cease  at  the  corners.  Again  our  curves  may  arise  at 
the  center  of  the  bottom  and  swing  around  the  corners  and  sides 
to  meet  at  the  top.  These  are  some  of  the  most  obvious  arrange- 
ments of  curved  lines  in  border  arrangements.  The  further  break- 
ing up  of  the  areas  left  on  either  side  by  the  curve  may  be  accom- 
plished by  branches  to  the  main  line  which  should  in  most  cases 
be  tangent  in  the  points  of  junction  [pi.  XXVjf. 

The  harder  —  conventional  forms 

48  The  use  of  conventional  forms  will  be  found  to  be  not  diffi- 
cult if  such  forms  are  adapted  to  the  general  arrangements  above 


20 


FREE-HAND  DRAW  INC 


FIGURE   5 


enumerated  for  abstract  forms.  A  conventional  leaf  or  flower  can 
be  modified  to  fill  almost  any  area  and  the  planning  of  a  conven- 
tional design  therefore  becomes  at  first  the  plotting  of  an  agreeable 
arrangement  of  abstract  areas,  which  will  be  changed  to  conven- 
tional leaves  or  flowers.  By  a  judicious  emphasizing  of  the  con- 
structive lines  of  the  form  to  be  decorated  and  a  sparing  rather  than 
lavish  use  of  conventional  shapes  in  the  parts  calling  for  an  appear- 
ance of  strength  the  best  results  are  obtained. 


Plate  XXV 


Plate  XXVI 


Possible  border  framework  for  floral  growth 
Plate  XXVII 


Plate  XXVIII 


i      ^-.: 


Xfc^- 

DESIGN  21 

Inclosed  arras 

49  The  foregoing  statements  regarding  designs  for  borders,  us- 
ing either  abstract  or  conventional  motives,  apply  with  but  few 
necessary  changes  to  the  decoration  of  inclosed  areas  or  the  space 
within  the  border.  Again  must  we  decide  whether  or  not  it  is  best 
to  leave  it  quite  alone,  letting  the  border  tell  the  complete  story. 

50  In  the  decorating  of  our  inclosed  space  or  panel,  we  may 
proceed  in  several  ways,  breaking  up  our  surface  into  smaller  ab- 
stract areas  which  may  remain  the  final  effect  or  be  further  elabor- 
ated by  the  adaptation  of  conventional  nature  forms. 

51  Our  decoration  may  develop  from  the  corners  or  middle 
points  of  the  border  of  our  panel  and  spread  inwards  toward  its 
center,  or  it  may  develop  from  the  center  of  the  area  and  radiate 
outward.  Again  a  vertical  center  axis  may  be  the  backbone  of  the 
design  which  finds  here  a  source  of  growth  upward  and  to  the 
right  and  left.  A  single  decorative  figure,  frequently  improved  by 
being  placed  somewhat  higher  than  the  actual  center,  forms  an 
attractive  feature -within  the  border,  surrounded  by  a  plain  surface 
as  a  background.  Certain  types  of  ornament  such  as  festoons, 
escutcheons,  medallions,  elaborate  foliage  and  other  details  from 
historic  motives  are  almost  useless  in  the  grade  of  work  before  us. 
Two  types  remain  for  our  use  over  the  panel.  One  of  these  is 
a  continuous  surface  pattern  carried  uniformly  to  the  inner  border 
limit,  and  the  other  is  beautiful  lettering. 

52  Free-hand  lettering  should  be  constantly  employed  in  the  high 
school  not  only  in  the  drawing  room  but  on  every  opportunity 
where  such  a  use  would  be  an  advantage.  The  beauty  of  good  mar- 
gins, well  planned  masses  of  letters,  carefully  executed  initials, 
capitals  and  small  or  "  lower  case "  letters  should  be  impressed 
upon  the  classes.  The  ronian  alphabets  shown  in  plates  XXIX  and 
XXX  furnish  material  for  constant  practice,  in  leisure  moments  as 
well  as  in  the  drawing  lessons.  All  vagaries  must  be  discouraged 
and  suppressed.  Study  of  the  books  recommended  in  the  Drawing 
Syllabus  under  "  Lettering  "  is  very  important  eifd  will  provide  nec- 
essary guidance.  Large  charts  of  simple,  useful  lft>n\-a.n  alphabets 
should  be  about  every  drawing  room  for  constant  though  uncon- 
scious absorption  and  inspiration. 


22  FREE-HAND  DRAWING 


CHICKERNG 

HALL 

PROGRAM 


FIGURE  6 

An    example    of    well    formed    and    well    arranged    letters 

Materials  and  Technical  Methods 

53  The  materials  and  methods  recommended  under  the  head  of 
representation  are  applicable  with  few  exceptions  to  problems  in  de- 
sign. In  black  and  white  and  monochrome  work  the  lead  pencil  is 
by  all  odds  the  most  useful  all-around  medium.  Charcoal  does  not 
prove  satisfactory  in  most  cases.  Brush  and  ink  are  capable  of 
producing  brilliant  results,  which  may  be  further  enhanced  in  many 
cases  by  using  tones  of  neutral  gray  with  the  black.  Pen  and  ink 
may  be  employed  to  better  advantage  in  decorative  work  than  in 
pictorial  drawing  owing  to  the  freedom  from  the  necessity  of  real- 
istic modeling  and  gradations  of  tone.  Less  experience  and  dexter- 
ity are  required  in  producing  a  uniform  decorative  ink  outline 
around  flat-shaded  forms  than  in  interpreting  the  accidental  shapes 
and  textures  of  actual  objects.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  caution 
the  teacher  that  writing  ink  should  not  be  used.    The  best  bottled 


A 


ABCDE 

FGH 

LMNOP 

QRSTU 
VWXYZ 

23456 
7&QO& 


Plate  XXIX 


ABCDE 
FGHIJK 
LMNOP 

QRSTU 
VWXYZ 

123456 
760O6' 


Plate  XXX 


DESIGN 


^3 


India  ink,  a  first  quality  of  smooth,  hard-surface  bristol  board  and 
some  good  pens  are  the  essential  materials  to  satisfactory  work. 
Good  pen  and  ink  designs  may  be  reproduced  by  photo-engraving 
at  small  cost  for  publication. 

54  In  handling  color  we  find  that  water  color,  which  is  usually 
too  difficult  for  realistic  still  life  and  flower  drawing  is  most  satis- 
factory, either  in  monochrome  or  full  color,  for  design. 

Crayons  are  also  a  desirable  medium  capable  of  a  wide  range  of 
effects.  It  is  earnestly  recommended  that  experiments  in  the  com- 
bining of  different  mediums  and  materials  in  single  problems  be 
tried  both  by  teachers  and  pupils.  Harmonious  results,  as  happy 
as  they  are  unexpected,  are  frequently  arrived  at  through  such  ex- 
periments, greatly  enhancing  the  maker's  personal  pride  and  interest 
in  the  work. 


FIGURE  7 
A  simple,  effective  surface  pattern  from  an  old  Chinese  enamel 


Conspectus  of  the  Subject  of  Representation 


Type  solids,  plane  • 
and  curved  sur-  j 
faces  I 


Cube 
Prism 

Pyramid 


( Triangular 
I  Square 
I  Hexagonal 

I  Triangular 

Square 
[  Hexagonal 


Representation:  Draw- 
ing of  the  accidental 
appearance  of  ob- 
jects. Study  of  pro- 
portion. Principles 
of  perspective  and 
composition 


Cone 

I  Cylinder 

i  Sphere 

I 

[  Hemisphere 


Theory  of  perspective    List  of  principles 


Common  objects 

based  on  type  sol- 
ids 


Boxes,  chests,  benches,  tables,  chairs, 
buildings,  towers,  jars,  vases,  barrels, 
pails,  dishes,  utensils 


Drawing  from  memory,  dictation  or  description  of  above  forms 


Perspective  rendering  of  working  drawings 


Nature  drawing 
Character,  pose  and 
action 


Plants 


Animals 


Typical  trees  in  rrjasses 
Branches,  sprays,  leaves 
Fruit,  flowers,  seed  pods, 
and  details 

(Common    animals,    birds, 
insects,     fishes      and 
their  details 


Technical  methods  of  using  drawing  material  in  outline,  light  and 
dark,  and  light  and  shade 


REPRESENTATION 

55  A  satisfactory  course  in  representation  should  include  and 

cover  the  following  requirements : 

a  Drawing  from  type  solids  having  plane  and  curved  surfaces  and 
common  utensils  of  similar  shapes.  These  should  be  studied  in 
various  positions,  both  singly  and  in  groups,  in  outline,  light  and 
dark,  and  light  and  shade. 

b  Theory  of  perspective 

c  Drawing  from  dictation,  description  or  memory  of  objects  men- 
tioned in  section  a 

d  Drawing  in  perspective  from  working  drawings 

e  Drawing  from  plant  and  animal  forms  and  their  details 

/  The  principles  of  arrangement  or  composition  of  the  objects  of 
which  a  picture  is  made  up 


Drawing  from  Type  Solids 

56  In  considering  this  subject  it  is  well  to  recall  the  important 
place  given  to  the  type  solids  some  30  or  more  years  ago  and 
their  gradual  exclusion  during  the  following  years  from  our  public 
schools  in  favor  of  everyday  objects  of  allied  shapes.  The  change 
has  been  based  upon  the  theory  that  objects  of  interest  to  pupils  and 
teacher  will  be  more  convincing  as  lesson  material  than  bare  blocks 
of  theoretical  form.     Our  American  experiment  of  teaching  object 

1  rawing  without  the  type  forms  has  been  tested  for  some  years  and 
should  be  considered  on  its  merits.  If  pupils  can  draw  better  with- 
out contact  with  type  solids  their  absence  is  a  benefit.  If  the  con- 
trary is  true  they  should  be,  in  some  measure  at  least,  restored. 

57  Direct  comparison  of  American  class  work  with  that  of  Eng- 
lish and  continental  schools  in  recent  conferences  abroad  offers  con- 


26  FREE-HAND  DRAWING 

vincing  testimony  that  our  pupils  are  not  taught  to  draw  with  the 
skill,  accuracy  or  thoroughness  of  European  pupils.  The  only 
remedy  to  apply  is  to  drill  more  insistently  and  carefully  on  draw- 
ing pure  and  simple  until  a  fair  percentage  in  every  school  can  rep- 
resent reasonably  well  such  common  articles  as  a  box,  book,  cup  or 
saucer  placed  in  any  position. 

How  best  to  attain  this  skill  in  drawing  still  remains  in  America 
largely  a  personal  question  variously  answered  by  many  teachers. 
It  is  safe  to  say,  however,  that  the  abandonment  of  type  solids  has 
not  brought  about  any  greater  skill  in  drawing,  and  a  judicious  re- 
turn to  them  as  foundation  material  for  object  drawing  is  therefore 
earnestly  recommended.  This  should  not  be  interpreted  to  mean 
that  such  solids  must  dominate  the  course  as  formerly  or  be  used  to 
the  exclusion  of  more  interesting  things. 

58  Pupils  who  have  received  adequate  instruction  in  the  grammar 
grades  should  at  an  early  stage  of  the  high  school  course  be  able  to 
draw  the  foreshortened  appearance  in  any  position  of  such  funda- 
mental plane  figures  as  the  triangle,  square,  rectangle,  hexagon  and 
circle.  From  this  knowledge  may  develop  the  study  of  solids 
bounded  by  such  surfaces  as  the  cube,  various  prisms  and  pyramids, 
together  with  the  cylinder,  cone  and  sphere.  These  should  be  prac- 
tised until  their  construction  is  thoroughly  understood.  No  policy 
of  slighting  or  evasion  on  account  of  supposed  dryness  of  the  sub- 
ject will  be  found  to  be  a  satisfactory  substitute  for  honest  drill 
on  these  basic  solids.  With  a  reasonable  familiarity  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  such  forms  the  pupil  can  study  the  more  complicated 
objects  of  daily  life  with  confidence. 

59  In  drawing  from  any  object  or  group  the  pupil  should  start 
with  a  thoughtful  survey  of  the  whole  as  to  relative  width  and 
hight  including  the  desired  background  and  foreground. 

60  The  position  of  the  paper  is  to  be  decided  and  the  location 
and  size  of  the  drawing  on  the  sheet.  These  first  steps  in  starting 
the  drawing  are  so  constantly  ignored  or  violated  that  too  great 
emphasis  can  hardly  be  given  to  them. 

61  The  proportion  of  the  whole  object  or  group  is  to  be  indi- 
cated lightly  and  massed  in  by  blocked  forms,  using  straight  lines 
as  boundaries  connecting  all  exterior  corners.     The  student  should 


'^/^-n. 


REPRESENTATION  27 

imagine  the  object  or  group  as  inclosed  in  a  shell  or  wrapping, 
which  ignores  minor  depressions  but  gives  all  the  plain  features 
and  positions  for  comparison  [pi.  XXXI]. 

62'  Unaided  visual  judgment  should  always  precede  mechanical 
tests.  All  the  usual  tests  with  pencil,  thread,  adjustable  card 
angles  and  frame  openings  should  be  made  clear  to  the  students. 
In  applying  tests  they  preferably  should  occur  in  the  following 
order  during  the  progress  of  the  drawing. 

Whole  hight  compared  to  whole  width 
Comparison  of  horizontal  levels  of  important  points 
Comparison  of  horizontal  distances  of  important  points 
Comparison  of  vertical  relations  of  important  points 
Comparison  of  vertical  distances  of  important  points 
Comparison  of  oblique  and  diagonal  relations  and  distances 
of  important  points 

(y}^  Further  development  of  the  drawings  will  bring  out  the  per- 
spective details  of  each  object  or  part  which,  if  the  preceding  work 
has  been  well  checked,  will  fall  into  proper  position  and  relation 
with  the  adjoining  parts. 

64  A  review  of  the  above  tests  together  with  careful  compari- 
sons of  perspective  angles  by  means  of  two  cards  should  be  suffi- 
cient for  an  accurate  representation  of  any  group. 

Perspective  Principles 

65  The  best  method  of  teaching  perspective  principles,  if  we 
accept  the  verdict  of  a  number  of  successful  teachers,  is  that  of 
deduction  of  such  principles  during  the  drawing  of  actual  objects. 
Courses  in  theoretical  perspective  alone  involving  the  technical  and 
mechanical  diagrams,  distance  points,  etc.  are  usually  misleading 
to  the  younger  high  school  students  and  frequently  miss  the  very 
end  they  were  supposed  to  attain,  namely  skill  in  the  drawing  of 
real  things.  Such  instruction  should  be  given  in  the  latter  part  of 
a  high  school  course,  and  only  when  there  is  sufficient  time.  In  the 
study,  therefore,  from  type  forms  or  other  objects  should  be  brought 
out  the  theory  and  application  of  perspective  principles  as  enumer- 
ated in  the  following  list. 


28 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING 


The  picture  plane 

The  horizon  Hne 

The  center  of  vision 

The  line  of  sight 

Vanishing  points 

Parallel  perspective 

Angular  perspective 

Oblique  perspective 

Convergence  (of  parallel  lines  or  edges  in  various  positions) 

Foreshortening  (of  lines  and  planes) 
66  Mere  ability  to  give  a  definition  or  explanation  of  any  or  all 
of  these  principles  is  not  indicative  of  intelligent  power  to  put  them 
to  use,  which  is  the  only  final  test. 


FIGURE  8 


^ 

&* 


Plate  XXXIII 


-^pMiL^^„^i^\-l.j\ 


Plate  XXXIV 


•iJ 


I 

it 


Plate  XXXV 


Plate  XXXVI 


REPRESENTATION  29 

Drawing  from  Common  Objects 

67  An  approach  to  the  drawing  of  common  objects  through  a 
study  of  type  forms  has  been  recommended  in  the  section  of  the 
syllabus  under  that  heading.  That  such  an  approach  is  invariably 
necessary  or  that  such  type  studies  must  be  pursued  for  any  uni- 
form length  of  time  for  all  schools  would  be  an  absurd  claim.  To 
the  individual  teacher  must  be  left  the  decision  of  how  to  make 
clear  the  construction  and  principles  governing  the  appearance  of 
any  form. 

68  Lips,  spouts,  handles,  feet  and  other  projecting  details  of 
common  objects  usually  puzzle  the  student.  They  should  be  ex- 
plained and  illustrated  as  to  their  constructive  relation  to  the  solids, 
in  various  positions  by  the  teacher  with  blackboard  drawings. 

69  The  method  of  procedure  in  la}'ing  out  an  object  drawing 
has  been  explained  in  a  preceding  paragraph. 

70  In  the  completion  of  such  a  drawing,  one  may  confine  him- 
self to  outline  or  use  Hght  and  dark,  light  and  shade  or  color. 

71  In  outline  drawing  the  only  satisfactory  result  is  obtained  by 
a  proper  emphasis  of  the  line  at  various  places  [pi.  XXXII].  It  is 
difficult  to  give  a  universal  rule  for  accenting  an  outline  drawing. 
Excellent  examples  of  such  accenting  may  be  seen  in  books  recom- 
mended in  the  bibliography  in  the  Drawing  Syllabus  [fig.  I,  8, 
pi.  XXXIII-XXXV,  XLIV]. 

^2  The  term  "  light  and  dark  "  as  applied  to  this  work  means 
the  giving  to  each  part  of  a  drawing  a  flat  tone  corresponding  to 
its  color  value  without  reference  to  actual  effect  of  light,  shade  or 
shadow  [pi.  XXXVI]. 

y2i  "  Light  and  shade  "  involves  the  truthful  representaition  of  the 
actual  appearance  of  the  group  with  background  and  foreground  and 
includes  all  variations  in  value  due  to  accidental  causes  and  local 
conditions,  as  well  as  color  and  texture  of  materials  [pi.  XXXVII]. 
A  thorough  presentation  of  this  whole  subject  can  be  found  in  the 
works  on  "  Light  and  shade  "  listed  in  the  Drawing  Syllabus. 

Drawing  from  Memory,  Dictation  or  Description 
74  Ability  to  draw  correctly  from  objects  should  be  augmented 
by  the  power  to  represent  such  forms  from  memory,  imagination 


30 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING 


or  dictation.  Such  ability  can  come  only  through  the  mastery  of 
the  fundamental  principles  of  perspective  studied  in  type  solids 
and  allied  common  forms,  coupled  with  frequent  practice  in  quick 
sketching  without  the  required  objects  in  view. 

75  After  an  intelligent  study  of  these  things  it  should  not  be 
considered  too  difficult  a  task  to  draw  in  any  position  a  cube,  prism, 
cylinder  or  cone.  Changing  or  elaborating  them  into  forms  of  ves- 
sels, utensils,  furniture  or  buildings  is  but  a  step  more  difficult. 

Perspectives  from  Working  Drawings 
y6  The  ability  to  depict  any  object  in  perspective  from  the  data 
in  a  working  drawing  is  of  the  greatest  value.  As  a  training  in 
drawing  it  develops  new  power.  It  is  useful  in  giving  a  clear  im- 
pression pictorially  of  the  object  shown  in  the  mechanical  views 
[pi.  II-IV]. 

yy  While  the  perspective  principles  underlying  this  phase  of  the 
subject  are,  of  course,  the  same  as  in  any  other  drawing,  the  man- 
ner of  approach  is  somewhat  different.  Adequate  treatment  of 
this  phase  of  drawing  will  be  found  in  books  on  this  subject  given 
in  the  Drawing  Syllabus. 

Nature  Drawing 
78  The  study  of  natural  forms  should  be  pursued  with  a  three- 
fold motive. 

a  As  another  means  of  learning  to  draw 


FIGURE  9 


x^.ki^ 


TYPE5  or  fLOWERS  •  51DE  VIEW 


Plate  XXXVIII 


Plate  XXXIX 


NATUDElS  5HEATH5  ANDACCENT6 
•  AT  P01NT5  OF  JUNCTURE  • 


Plate  XL 


'^VUie^^"^ 


"fi, 


Plate  KU 


Plate  XLII 


1 

i 

! 

/^^ 

{^ 

I        ^        ^^ 

1                            '       J 

i 

i 
1 

=\.            ^ 

k^ 

• 

Plate  XLIII 


REPRESENTATION  31 

b  For  the  refining  influence  clue  to  the  careful  study  of  beautiful 

forms 
c  As  a  source  of  decorative  material  for  use  in  design 

79  There  is  almost  always  a  conflict  over  the  two  methods  of 
rawing  nature  forms  in  schools  where  drawing  and  biology  are 
oth  taught.  It  seems  hardly  necessary  to  insist  here  that  the  mo- 
ve for  the  artist  and  designer  should  be  one  of  those  mentioned 
bove  and  not  that  of  picking  out  scientific  details.  Each  method 
;  important  and  must  be  followed  seriously  within  its  definite 
oundaries.  There  is  no  reason  why  a  high  school  student  should 
ot  make  both  biological  drawings  and  nature  drawings  from  the 
rt  side,  each  in  its  proper  spirit  and  technic. 

80  The  specific  aim  of  nature  drawing  from  the  esthetic  side 
iiould  be  the  grasp  and  graphic  interpretation  of  the  character  and 
eauty  of  nature's  forms.  Mere  microscopic  exactness  is  of  no 
alue  here.  The  vital  force,  the  pose,  the  grace  or  the  delicacy  of 
ny  subject  may  be  gained  by  few  lines  or  many,  in  one  medium 
r  another,  but  to  give  them  unmistakably  should  be  the  object  of 
ature  drawing  [fig.  9,  10,  pi.  XXXVIII-XLIV]. 

81  The  correlation  between  the  drawing  of  nature  forms  and 
le  study  of  type  solids  and  common  objects  is  cl'oser  than  many 
nagine.  Such  correlation  should  be  shown  to  pupils  wherever 
ossible.  Geometric  deductions  should  be  drawn  from  plant  studies 
nd  parallels  pointed  out  between  foreshortened  leaf  and  other 
ature  forms  and  typical  plane  or  solid  figures  similarly  placed, 
lower  and  bud  forms  ally  themselves  to  the  cylinder,  cone, 
emisphere  or  egg  form,  whose  axes  bear  definite  relations  to  their 
:ems.  Petals,  veins,  corolla,  pistils  and  stamens  almost  invariably 
low  their  geometric  character  and  disposition,  which  should  be 
^cemplified  by  simple  type  form  illustrations. 

82  Study  of  actual  objects  may  be  augmented  with  much  profit 
y  careful  study  and  some  copying  from  good  prints.  Illustrative 
laterial  ought  always  to  be  in  view,  and  reproductions  of  similar 
rawings  by  the  best  artists  repeatedly  shown  to  the  students. 

83  Nature  drawing  should  cover  the  study  of  the  silhouette 
lapes  of  beautiful  forms.  Characteristic  types  of  our  common 
•ees  are  excellent  material  for  study  of  masses.     More  detailed 


32  FREE-HAND  DRAWING 

work  naturally  follows  from  branches  and  sprays  to  individual 
leaves  and  flowers.  Silhouette  drawing  with  the  brush  can  by  no 
means  replace  the  more  important  pencil  studies  of  the  same  sub- 


FIGURE   10 


jects.  Earnest  effort  to  interpret  the  vital  truths  though  ignoring 
the  minute  or  needless  details  will  be  amply  repaid.  The  field  of 
animal  life  offers  an  equally  wide  range  of  study  though  the 
materials  are  perhaps  less  available  [pi.  XLIV].  Excellent  pic- 
tures are  procurable  where  living  forms  or  prepared  specimens  can 
not  be  obtained  and  are  of  great  value  in  this  nature  drawing. 

84  A  word  of  caution  may  be  given  here  against  regarding  these 
studies  as  finished  pictures.  Their  purpose  should  be  that  of  earnest 
searching  for  beautiful  shapes,  character  of  growth,  arrangement 
of  color  and  nature's  adaptation  of  materials  to  definite  uses.  A 
keener  insight  into  these  phases  of  the  life  forces  about  us  through 
drawing  is  the  aim  of  this  part  of  the  study  rather  than  a  few 
sketchy  impressions  of  spring  or  autumn  flowers. 


INSECT  5TUDIE5  FROM  NATURE 


Plate  XLIV 


REPRESENTATION  33 

Materials  and  Technical  Methods 

85  The  number  of  mediums  from  which  the  high  school  teacher 
of  drawing  may  choose  is  quite  extensive.  This  adds  an  unfortu- 
nate danger  in  the  case  of  the  poorly  trained  instructor,  who  is 
led  to  scatter  attention  over  all  mediums  with  no  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  any  one. 

86  No  medium  can  take  the  place  of  the  ordinary  lead  pencil. 
For  careful,  detailed  work  a  somewhat  hard  grade  is  desirable.  A 
medium  grade  is  best  for  all  ordinary  drawing,  while  a  soft  or 
very  soft  lead  is  needed  for  shaded  work. 

87  Methods  of  pencil  technic  are  numerous.  They  range  from 
the  accented  outhne  drawings  to  the  most  careful  rendering  of  light 
and  shade  in  full  values.  Various  methods  of  pencil  technic  can  be 
studied  profitably  in  the  books  recommended  in  the  Drawing  Syllabus 
and  in  the  wide  and  ever  changing  field  of  magazine  illustrations. 
A  word  of  caution  must  be  given  against  mannerisms  in  pencil 
shading.  The  aim  of  such  work  should  be  to  approximate  a  truth- 
ful appearance  of  the  subject,  not  dashing,  sketchy  or  conspicuous 
pencil  strokes.  A  broad  gray  line  is  not  always  desired  nor  is  the 
flat  clapboard  or  slab  stroke  made  by  a  chisel-shaped  lead.  Ability 
should  be  cultivated  to  lay  a  smooth  gray  tone  of  any  value  in 
which  the  effect  is  flat,  without  smart  brilliancy  or  evidence  of 
clever  or  mannered  strokes.  If  any  particular  form  or  texture 
requires  a  special  modeling  the  method  of  shading  and  the  shape  of 
the  lead  most  appropriate  should  be  used.  Lead  pencil  should  be 
the  m.edium  of  all  others  to  be  studied  seriously  in  the  high  schools. 

88  Much  pleasure  with  increased  enthusiasm  in  work  and  good 
results  comes  through  the  use  of  a  colored  crayon  instead  of  the 
ordinary  lead  pencil,  finishing  the  drawing  in  one  color  throughout. 

89  Work  in  black  drawing  ink  with  brush  is  excellent  for  the 
study  of  nature  forms  and  decorative  effects.  The  use  of  several 
values  in  monotone  wash  drawings  is  also  desirable.  Pen  and  ink 
drawing  is  to  be  but  cautiously  resorted  to  for  elementary  work.  It 
is  of  little  use  in  a  class  problem.  Copies  from  pen  and  ink  draw- 
ings of  popular  illustrators  have  almost  no  educational  value,  owing 
to  the  usual  striving  of  the  beginner  to  imitate  facial  expressions, 


34 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING 


mannerisms  of  shading  or  other  superficial  characteristics  in  the 
work  of  the  artist  rather  than  the  big  fundamentals  of  the  drawing. 

90  Charcoal  is  a  most  useful  medium  both  in  "  light  and  dark  " 
and  drawings  in  full  values,  and  is  too  well  known  to  need  ex- 
tended mention.  Its  use  in  brief  drawing  periods  where  work  has 
to  be  resumed  for  several  widely  separated  sittings  is  somewhat 
discouraging  owing  to  its  perishable  character  until  "  fixed  "  and 
the  amount  of  dirt  that  an  indifferent  or  ill  disposed  student  can 
create.  Well  executed  charcoal  drawings  colored  by  water  color 
washes  are  a  desirable  method  for  more  advanced  students.  The 
use  of  full  water  colors  is  very  difficult  as  a  medium  for  conscien- 
tious still  life  drawing  in  the  high  school.  They  are  admirable  for 
sketches  and  decorative  work,  and  have  beautiful  and  distinctive 
color  quality. 

91  Colored  crayons,  being  so  much  more  adaptable  to  the  many 
restrictions  of  the  high  school  drawing  room,  are  now  used  in 
many  schools  more  extensively  than  water  color,  both  in  represen- 
tation and  design.  They  are  capable  of  various  effects  of  technic, 
are  clean,  quickly  distributed  and  collected,  need  no  drying  and 
can  be  handled  without  need  of  "  fixing  "  as  in  charcoal. 


^^ 


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THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
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